Soffa Ihsan
Channel9.id – Jakarta. The international community is confronted with the persistent threat that terrorist attacks pose to vulnerable targets, including critical infrastructure and public places or ‘soft’ targets. Terrorists have increasingly explored vulnerabilities in public and private utilities of almost all sectors. Crowded places, such as markets, pedestrian areas, tourist places and religious sites, continue to be prime objectives of terrorist attacks across the world.
Early 2023 the world was shocked by acts of extremism carried out by two adherents of different ideological variants. First, religious-based extremism in Pakistan targets police who are praying at mosques in that country. Second, the burning of the Holy Quran in Sweden. Third, extremism based on extreme ideology, attempts to overthrow the government in Germany by the Neo Nazi group, and fourth, the latest is the case of police shootings in Australia. And also the case that recently occurred, namely the attack on a school in America that was carried out by a homosexual. This action was motivated by his resistance to homophobia.
Referring to the history of extremism that has occurred in the world, extreme actions are not only dominated by religiously motivated actors, but also by various other ideological motivations. Classical and modern eras, separating extremism with various motivational backgrounds with the terms extreme right and extreme left. Often the naming of types of extremism refers to the basis of religious motivation and the ideology of violence. In its development, extremism is also referred to as increasingly specific perpetrator organizations, both those connected to networks and those that are not connected
To see the extent of the terrorist threat to these vulnerable targets, it is interesting to see the mindset of terrorists, especially ex-convicts. Have they been released from prison and have they really changed their minds and become moderates?
Mindset of Terrorists
I have met quite a number of ex-combatants and made friends. Since 2017, I have created a program called Rumah Daulat Buku, Rudalku (Sovereign House of Book)) which brings together ex-terrorist convicts from various cases and groups. Until 2023, Rudalku has gathered several ex-terrorist convicts from various regions in Indonesia. The Rudalku program under the umbrella of Sovereign Nation Institute is carrying out deradicalization efforts through a literacy approach to ex-terrorist convicts. Through the Rudalku program, I can at least know what made them involved in terrorist networks and even carry out acts of terror. Based on our findings over several years of research on radicalism and terrorism, it turns out that reading activities are closely related to fluctuations in radicalism. A person can be affected by radicalism due to a lack of reading.
I feel there are traces of pain that continues to pound the soul. From there the ‘seeds’ thrived in the nursery especially as a result of being sprayed with fertilizer by the tense atmosphere. Yes, the ‘fire in the husk’ suddenly flared up. What happened exactly? Does radicalism continue to mutate. It’s like the corona virus, which in research by scientists continues to give birth to new mutants that are more dangerous than their parent. Radicalism seems to have undergone a similar process. He metamorphoses which is often also a mutant which is made harder along with the circumstances that surround him. So far, there is no effective vaccination against it.
A person is not born to be a terrorist. Becoming a terrorist is possible because there is an opportunity, chance and intention. Here there is such a thing as a pull factor and a push factor. Terrorist targets can be anything including cricial infrastructure such as international schools, hospitals, hotels, cafes, tourist destination, transportation, markets, pedestrian areas, sacred cemeteries, embassy, hospital, government offices, police stations and even religious sites. In the past, the target of the first Bali bombing was to target an international school in Surabaya, but then changed and targeted Bali.
Indonesia itself has experienced many terrorist cases such as the Marriot bombing, Riz Carlton, Kuningan bombing, churches, police stations and others. Long before, for example, in Medan, there had been cases of terrorism targeting hospitals and churches. Timsal Zubir, a former terrorist from the Komji group once told me that he used to be fueled by the spirit of jihad against infidels and then carried out his terror act in Medan. He was sentenced to 22 years and in 2009 he was released.
There is another AA who was involved in the Marriot 1 Bombing case and was sentenced to 8 years. His confession to me was that he was exposed to takfiriism, disbelief especially towards Westerners. He also admitted that he wanted jihad against America which he said had harmed many muslim countries.
And also KT, who together with his group from Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) wanted to bomb a tourist destination in Bukit Tinggi, West Sumatra, where there were many Western tourists. He also claimed to have antipathy towards Western countries which had destroyed a lot of Muslim countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan and others.
There is another MT who is ready to carry out a suicide bombing targeting the Myanmar embassy and also the police station in Jakarta. MT had left a will to his wife and parents that he would wage jihad and seek martyrdom. MT, who used to be part of the NII network, became more radical with indoctrination against infidels who, in his opinion, had endangered Islam.
PF, a former terrorist convict who was only released in 2022, and his group once carried out a book bombing and also wanted to bomb public facilities, namely an electric pipe in Serpong, Tangerang. If it explodes, he said, it will have a tremendous destructive impact on the area. He is a former journalist and film screenwriter turned radical.
The Malay Taliban group was planning to carry out a bombing against the Myanmar embassy in Jakarta. They called for solidarity to defend the Rohingya Muslims who were being oppressed by the Miyanmar military regime. Two ex-napiterrorists in this case, namely KI and IW, once told me how they burned with the spirit of jihad to participate in planning the attack, even though it had not yet happened.
A former migrant worker in Hong Kong, IP, he was once ready to carry out a suicide bombing in Bali. It didn’t happen yet, and he was arrested by the police for a terrorism financing case.
The available data counts 12 incidents since 2002. In 2018, Indonesia was one of the countries in Asia Pacific that received a bad score due to increased terrorist activity, followed by Vietnam, North Korea and Taiwan (Global Terrorism Index, 2019). This figure appears as a result of a series of terrorist attacks that occurred in Indonesia in 2018, including terror bombings at three churches in Surabaya which claimed lives and dozens of people were injured, riots at the Mobile Brigade Command Headquarters (Mako) of Mobile Brigade, terrorist attacks at the Riau Regional Police Headquarters, and suicide bombings himself at Polrestabes Surabaya and Rusunawa Wonocolo Sidoarjo. The series of terror acts that occurred throughout 2018 and in previous years claimed many lives, as well as material losses that were not only felt individually, but also by the state.
Questions about ex-terrorist convicts and their families: Where will they go after they are released from prison? Will they repeat acts of terror again? Can they be kept away from terrorism during prison training? Will they be accepted by society? What about the families of convicts who still hold trauma and grudges? There are still those who remain committed to jihadism and some even commit acts of terror again like Sunakim in the Thamrin bombing case, January 14 2016 or are back in radical networks like Isnaini Romdhoni who was involved in the bomb network at the Surabaya church, May 13 2018.
The rise of terrorist recidivism
The fact that terrorist recidivism is repeated makes the deradicalization program stand out. . According to BNPT data, there were 1289 terrorists who had been arrested and around 8 percent returned to recidivism. The various efforts that have been made so far by inviting figures from abroad and religious leaders have not been sufficient because ex-convicts feel they have different lines of understanding. Indeed, cases of terrorist recidivism do not only occur in Indonesia, but in many countries. In Indonesia as well as at the world level, there are many former terrorist convicts who have returned to commit similar acts after completing their sentences or what are commonly called recidivists.
Cases of suicide bombings recur again on December 7 2022. This savage tragedy occurred at the Astana Anyar Polsekta, Bandung. The perpetrator was Agus Sujatno, or Abu Muslim bin Wahid. Surprisingly, this perpetrator was an ex-napiter born in Bandung who had only been released for a year from Nusakambangan. Previously he was involved in the Cicendo bombing, the perpetrator of which was Yayat Cahdiyat in 2017. Agus and Yayat built a bomb made of materials purchased online. As a result of this case, he was rewarded with 4 years in Nusakambangan.
When discussing recidivism, it is important to note that, although religiously motivated terrorism has seen a post-9/11 upsurge, other ideologues have inspired terrorist acts globally. Nationalism, and right-wing terrorism are just a few examples of non-religious motivations that morph into violent extremism. Despite the diversity in ideology, contemporary studies of recidivism tend to focus on religious communities. Perhaps this is due to the assumption, as Pluchinksy states, that “terrorists with secular motivations and goals are more likely to reform in prison than terrorists who are motivated by religion.” Several deradicalization programs implemented in countries around the world, including Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Egypt, and Yemen, tend to focus on theologically oriented transitions in beliefs and motivations (Omi Hodwitz; 2019, 54)
The process of radicalization in social science studies seems to have undergone a significant paradigm shift. The study of pathways to radicalization when referring to the phenomenon of the emergence of terrorists, encourages researchers to explain the lack of theoretical models that can explain what is happening. This is where, for example, the study of the ecology of radicalism emerges. The basic unit of the ecological model is the individual social actor. The focus of the researcher is the agent’s involvement with various contexts that influence and shape the process of radicalization. This allows us to gain an understanding of the actor’s situation, which in turn makes it possible to trace the career path to becoming a terrorist.
Understanding the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of very ordinary people end up committing horrific acts. For example, on April 15, 2013, two Chechen Kyrgyzstani-American brothers Dzhokhar Tsarnaev and Tamerlan Tsarnaev planted two homemade bombs near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, killing three people and injuring several hundred. A determining factor in the appeal of terrorist propaganda is its ability to offer meaning to individuals who hardly find it in a social setting they perceive as corrupt and distorted by their views. What seems to be the key determinant in jihadis shifts from potential to actuality. Often the solidarity and support of individuals far along the path of radicalization drastically accelerates radicalization. So far it has been shown that shared experience is the driving factor behind a jihadist’s ability to generate enthusiasm that becomes radicalized and ultimately drives the courage to act.
Admittedly, ex terrorist convicts are a group that is still vulnerable to the spread of information in cyberspace. The indoctrination from their mentors when they joined radical networks did not just disappear even though they had served their sentences in prison. They are still strong in their heads from radical doctrines so it will be easy to ‘burn’ when they read writings on the internet that call for radicalism. Readings that have a radical flavor either through the internet or radical books can be a ‘reminder’ of their radical thoughts. Again, this is proof of how very little they read. So what appears is more on ‘emotions’ without being based on scientific, in-depth and critical reasoning.
Thus, this fact makes us more aware that ideology—quoting Ranya Ahmed (2018)—has a strong influence that can explain individual and group actions. The dictum “ideology determines who is the enemy” is imprinted. Ideology has a long justification for political action. Worldviews have decisions, and actions that are guided by both violence and non-violence.
Radical is an ideology not a pathology. Ideology has a strong influence that can explain individual and group actions, “ideology determines who the enemy is” and has a long justification for political action (Ranya Ahmad, 2018). lone wolves, namely those who move on their own without a network and the source is the result of learning from the internet. Organizational decline (tandzim) or also called “jihad without a leader,” (Arabinda Acharya and Sonal Marwah; 2011). Salafi-Wahabi, Ikhwanul Muslimin fpr example which gave birth to non-violent extremism or violent extremism against society, including ex-convicts and families of convicts who are still vulnerable.
Recently, we have witnessed great success in dismantling the networks of extremist groups. But the threat of violence from extremist groups in Indonesia has not passed. One by one, the fugitives on the police wanted list were chased down, arrested, tried and jailed. So far the police have been doing well, but they’ve also been lucky. So far, potential terrorists have been “sloppy” because they are not properly trained, lack discipline and are careless. Action big attacks are no longer happening. However, this shows that despite so many attacks against them, extremist groups are still able to form new groups under pressure and plan new acts of amaliyah, often with the help of colleagues in prison. A leader who is highly skilled and has more patience than the jihadist groups have shown so far may still be able to gather people and form groups to carry out actions (amaliyah) without being detected by the authorities. Some individuals who were previously part of radical organizations at a later stage became terrorists.
Retaliation and Idiology
Retaliation is a retaliatory action, a counterattack carried out against targets that have a relationship with previous acts of violence. It can even target targets who have absolutely no relation but have the same identity, such as religion and race. Retaliation can be done by the state, organization, group or individual. However, retaliation does not stand alone. In my opinion, retaliation can be a pull factor and a driving force for cycles of violence. Apart from that, it has to be admitted that there are ideological factors of violence that are adhered to. The accepted doctrine of retaliation against violence is followed by conflicting groups seeking legitimacy for retaliatory violence. Retaliation as a response to acts of violence in a country, by carrying out the same acts of violence cannot be justified by any argument. The rule of law framework is an umbrella that acts of violence must be brought into the realm of impartial law. Settlement framework with respected law enforcement officials running the applicable legal mechanisms.
According to Karl Mannheim, german philosopher, ideology is interpreted as something that is not in accordance with the truth. Knowledge that is ideological means knowledge that is more loaded with one’s subjective beliefs than loaded with empirical facts. Ideology is even interpreted as misleading knowledge, because it is very subjective. Mannheim’s view of ideology is congruent with the credo that human knowledge cannot be separated from its existence. People who adhere to a certain ideology will find it difficult to see the truth from other societal views and theories. This is because for adherents of ideology the main thing is their interest to defend the system which they believe is the most correct. This happens because of the lack of harmony in the collective unconscious of the groups involved. With the sociology of knowledge approach, the relationship between knowledge and the existence of human life will be dismantled. Well, Mannheim’s concept of ideology is useful for fighting stuffiness, stagnation, and infertility of thought.
Karl Mannheim’s theory can be used to see how a true believer ‘formulates’ a way of thinking and behaving. They do not trust other opinions that criticize because what they know has become “ideology”. This means that it is standardized and subjective. Knowledge that has become an ideology will be immune to criticism. It means to be closed, there is no more room for fiddling with it anymore. If it’s like this, then what arises is a mindset and attitude that is vulnerable to actions or actions that are beyond rational.
The government needs to create and enforce a zero tolerance policy against religiously motivated violence. Extremists who are then involved in jihad activities usually go through several stages of radicalization first, often by participating, for example, in an extremist study group. There is some evidence to suggest that once a radical commits some form of violence, it is easier for him or her to engage in more severe forms of violence.
There has never been “just terrorism”, a doctrine analogous to the idea of “just war”. Some of the terrorist campaigns that occur are aimed solely at just ends, with self-imposed rules of administration, against oppressors and tyrants. But this notion occurred during a period when terrorist acts were directed against individuals who were held to be personally guilty for one reason or another. Since then, terrorism has grown from limited warfare to total and indiscriminate, of course as far as targets are concerned, quite often the aim is simply to kill or injure as many people as possible. For some terrorist groups, campaigns have become totally concerned not only with the actions, but also with the goals. When terrorism becomes a real danger, those involved in it will no longer be able to run and hide. Such escalations are now gradually taking place in the Middle East, Africa and Asia.
Countering the facts of extremism, we still need deradicalization. Successful deradicalization—quoting Ian Chalmers’ research results in Countering Violent Extremism in Indonesia (2017)—is more likely to place emphasis on community-based action. Communities are more ‘fanged’ than government officials or agencies. Deradicalization carried out by community forces makes it easier for ex-jihadists and those exposed to radicals to approach, then invite them to be friends and then carry out useful activities. Therefore, deradicalization is not just carried out ‘one hit’, then silence returns. As with ex-convicts, in fact they only stop for a moment, and when there are things that allow them to jump in, it’s not impossible to do easily.
Baca juga: BNPT: Ada 1.500 WNI Jadi Teroris Lintas Batas
Philosopher Derrida once warned that terror attacks in the future, supported by advanced technology, would be more “colorful” and perhaps horror would come in a situation of silence, stealth, unseen and ultimately unimaginable. In Diderot’s words, the transition from fanaticism to barbarism is only a step, and if current trends continue, there is every reason for gloomy forecasts. The consequences of aggressive madness in the era of high technology and the era of weapons of mass destruction may be beyond our imagination.
Author is the Director of Lembaga Daulat Bangsa dan Rumah Daulat Buku (Rudalku)
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